Plastic Debris in the Laurentian Great Lakes a Review
PLoS One. 2018; thirteen(eight): e0202047.
Power of fungi isolated from plastic droppings floating in the shoreline of a lake to degrade plastics
Ivano Brunner
Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Found for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Moira Fischer
Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Establish for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Joel Rüthi
Wood Soils and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Found for Woods, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Beat Stierli
Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Institute for Woods, Snowfall and Landscape Inquiry WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Beat Frey
Forest Soils and Biogeochemistry, Swiss Federal Institute for Wood, Snowfall and Mural Research WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Ricardo Aroca, Editor
Received 2018 May 11; Accepted 2018 Jul 26.
Abstract
Plastic waste in the environs is a pregnant threat due to its resistance to biological processes. Hither nosotros written report the ability of fungal strains establish on floating plastic debris to degrade plastics. In item, we wanted to know which fungi grow on plastic debris floating in the shoreline, whether these fungi have the ability to degrade plastics, whether the plastic-degrading fungi can dethrone other complex C-polymers such equally lignin, and whether lignin-degraders vice versa tin can too break down plastics. Overall, more than a hundred fungal strains were isolated from plastic droppings of the shoreline of Lake Zurich, Switzerland, and grouped morphologically. Representative strains of these groups were and so selected and genetically identified, altogether twelve different fungal species and one species of Oomycota. The list of fungi included commonly occurring saprotrophic fungi simply also some plant pathogens. These fungal strains were then used to exam the power to degrade polyethylene and polyurethane. The tests showed that none of the strains were able to degrade polyethylene. However, four strains were able to degrade polyurethane, the 3 litter-saprotrophic fungi Cladosporium cladosporioides, Xepiculopsis graminea, and Penicillium griseofulvum and the establish pathogen Leptosphaeria sp. A series of additional fungi with an origin other than from plastic debris were tested too. Here, only the ii litter-saprotrophic fungi Agaricus bisporus and Marasmius oreades showed the adequacy to degrade polyurethane. In contrast, forest-saprotrophic fungi and ectomycorrhizal fungi were unable to dethrone polyurethane. Overall, information technology seems that in majority only a few litter-saprotrophic fungi, which possess a wide variety of enzymes, have the ability to degrade polyurethane. None of the fungi tested was able to dethrone polyethylene.
Introduction
Plastic debris in the environment poses a significant threat because of its resistivity to photo-oxidative, thermal, mechanical and biological processes [1,2]. Although disregarded for many years, the amount of plastic debris accumulating in the environment has been steadily increasing as a result of the fabric's durability and lightweight nature [3,4]. One time discarded on state, plastic debris makes its way to water bodies that act equally sinks for low-density litter [5–8]. Topography, air current and water currents, and proximity to pollution sources control the amount and types of plastics along shorelines, whereas deposition processes determine how long plastic debris remains on beaches [9,10].
An estimated 300 million tons of plastic are produced yearly [11]. Plastics are homo-made materials manufactured from polymers or long chains of repeating molecules. They are derived from oil, natural gas, and, increasingly, from plants similar corn and sugarcane. Nigh four percent of the world's petroleum is used to brand plastic, and some other four percent is used to power plastic manufacturing processes [12]. Polyethylene (PE) correspond about a 3rd of total plastic production, with PE is largely utilized in packaging [xi].
Plastic debris, an inevitable outcome of living the 'Plastic Age', is dominating our lakes and oceans and poses a worldwide threat to aquatic wild animals [3,13]. Floating or drifting plastic creates environmental hazards including the risks of plastic ingestion, starvation, and entanglement of aquatic organisms [5,9]. Plastic droppings, as recently published from the Lake Geneva, consisted of various size and colour, including bottles, bottle tops, cotton fiber buds, pens, toys, straws, and pieces or blocks of expanded polystyrene or polyurethane foam [14]. Plastic debris also provides novel aquatic vehicles for a broad range of rafting species, such every bit bacteria, fungi, algae, or insects, posing a potential threat to introduce invasive species [13]. Once plastics are discharged into aquatic environments, they can persist for up to 50 years, and their complete mineralisation may take hundreds or thousands of years [15].
In 2011 US researchers discovered an endophytic fungal species, which was able to dethrone polyurethane (PU), a plastic which is widely used in the manufacture of e.chiliad. high-resilience foam seating, rigid foam insulation panels, or tires such as skateboard wheels [sixteen]. This discovery obtained a loftier attention in the media (e.g. http://world wide web.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2146224/Could-fungi-interruption-plastic-stop-modern-scourge.html). The question arises, what well-nigh the fungi which can be found on plastic droppings? Nosotros had the hypothesis that at least some fungi that grow on plastic droppings have the potential to degrade plastics, and that the fungi that can degrade plastics are more than generalists than specialists. In particular, we wanted to answer the following questions: (ane) Which fungi grow on plastic debris floating in the shoreline? (two) Do the fungi isolated from floating plastics accept the ability to degrade PE or PU? (three) Practice fungi which are able to degrade plastics too take the ability to degrade other complex C-polymers such as lignin? (4) Do fungal lignin-degraders vice versa have the capability to dethrone PE or PU? With this report we too had the intention to clarify the abilities of the various trophic modes of fungi (saprotrophs, pathotrophs, symbiotrophs) with its functional guilds (due east.grand. plant pathogens, wood saprotrophs, [17]) for the deposition of PE or PU.
Materials and methods
Sampling of plastic debris
Plastic debris was collected in the shoreline of Lake Zurich close to Wädenswil (UTM coordinates 32T 474250 5231960) at September 2nd 2015. The plastic pieces either floated on the water or were found in a depth of up to 20 cm in the reed belt. The pieces of plastic were picked up with a pair of tweezers and a 0.7 cm x 0.7 cm piece was cut out with a pair of scissor. That piece was then placed into a sterile l ml Falcon tube. Before utilise, tweezers and scissors were dipped into lxx% ethanol and flamed over a lighter for sterilization. The falcon tubes were kept sealed in a refrigerated bag and transported the same day to the lab where they were kept at 4°C until use. In full, 13 pieces of plastics were sampled out of the h2o of the lake, and 1 was found close to the h2o (No. sixteen, Table 1). One slice was a difficult-plastic chunk and only a 2.5 cm2 fragment could be turned off with the tweezers.
Table 1
List of plastic debris collected from the lake of Zurich and the suspected plastic types polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) (according to Gosh et al. [57]).
| No. | Suspected origin of the plastic debris | Suspected plastic type |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | White plastic purse | PE |
| ii | White plastic bag | PE |
| three | White drinking plastic beaker | PP |
| 4 | Transparent/blue plastic packaging for beer cans | PE |
| 5 | Transparent plastic packaging | PE |
| 6 | Solid blue plastic fragment | PP |
| vii | Transparent plastic packaging | PE |
| 8 | Transparent/greenish plastic packaging for a chewing gum | PE |
| ix | White plastic packaging for ice-cream | PE |
| ten | Transparent re-sealable zipper storage bag | PE |
| 11 | Xanthous coloured plastic packaging for biscuits | PE |
| 15 | White/black plastic packaging for a chocolate bar | PE |
| xvi | Solid white plastic fragment | PP |
Isolation of fungi
In the laboratory, 2 ml of sterile water was added to each Falcon tube containing 1 plastic droppings piece. Then the tubes were mixed using a vortex mixer for about 10 s to allow the fungal hyphae and spores to divide from the plastic samples. In the sterile bench, 100 μl of water from each Falcon tube was taken with a sterile pipette, released into a Petri dish containing modified Melin-Norkrans (MMN) food agar, and spread with a flamed glass rod on the surface of the agar (compare also [eighteen]). Per Falcon tube, four Petri dishes were incubated. The plates were then incubated at room temperature in the dark until afterwards a few days the first fungal colonies were visible. Emerging fungal colonies were then punched out with a flamed hook, transferred onto a malt agar in glass tubes ('test-tubes') and incubated at room temperature in the dark.
Identification of fungi
One time the fungal mycelia in the glass tubes covered about one-half of the agar surface, they were transferred to iv°C to cease growth. In social club to select fungi for Dna identification, the isolated fungal strains were morphologically grouped according to their external appearance in terms of colour and texture. Representative strains of these groups were selected, and a function of the nuclear pocket-size subunit rDNA was sequenced. Samples of the fungal mycelia were straight placed into the wells of 96-well PCR-plates containing 100 μl DNAse/RNAse free PCR-grade water per well. Then the fungal hyphae were frozen past submerging the plates into liquid Ntwo and thawed at room temperature at least 3 times in club to break up the cells and to release the DNA. This solution was then i:10 diluted in PCR-grade water and used every bit template for the PCR reaction, performed with the G2 Hot Start Polymerase (Promega AG, Dübendorf, Switzerland), MgClii, dNTP, BSA and the primer pair ITS3/ITS4 [nineteen] like as in [20]. The resulting PCR products were then sequenced by a company (GATC Biotech, Köln, Germany), and the obtained nucleotide sequences blasted using the National Middle of Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database to obtain the closest species friction match.
In society to obtain longer DNA fragments for a more precise identification, the fungi, which were able to degrade PE or PU, were sequenced again (Macrogen Europe Amsterdam, the Netherlands) with the primer pair ITS1/ITS4 [19]. These nucleotide sequences were deposited at the NCBI GenBank.
Degradation assays
The ability of the fungi to degrade plastics was tested with deposition assays in Petri dishes on agar medium. The degradation assay using polyethylene (PE) every bit a plastic source was done according to Yamada-Onodera et al. [21]. The agar medium contained iii 1000 L-ane NHfourNO3, 5 1000 50-1 G2HPOfour, ane g L-one NaCl, 0.ii yard L-1 MgSO4.7H2O, 0.25 ml L-ane Tweed 20, and fifteen g L-1 agar. Thus, the medium contained the nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and chlorine. Immediately later on autoclaving, x thou L-1 PE powder (Sigma-Aldrich, Buchs, Switzerland; particle size 125 μm), which was prior to use additionally ground with a mortar in liquid N2, was added. The deposition assay using polyurethane (PU) as a plastic source was done according to Russel et al. [sixteen] and Biffinger et al. [22] with the addition of nutrients co-ordinate to Yamada-Onodera et al. [21]. The agar medium contained iii g L-1 NHfourNO3, 5 yard L-i ThoutwoHPO4, 1 g L-one NaCl, 0.2 k L-i MgSOfour .7HtwoO, and 15 g L-i agar. Immediately after autoclaving, x ml l-one PU was added. The PU used was Impranil®DLN-SD, Bayer MaterialScience (CSC JÄKLECHEMIE GmbH & Co. KG, Nürnberg, Germany), which is a polyester polyurethane dispersion.
The ability of the fungi to dethrone a complex C-polymer other than plastic, east.one thousand. lignin, was tested with the 'Bavendamm' assay in Petri dishes on agar medium [23]. This assay uses polyphenols as a lignin substitution. The agar medium contained twenty g L-1 malt extract and 15 yard 50-1 agar, and equally a polyphenol, 0.5 g L-1 tannic acid (TA) was added to the solution before autoclaving [23].
Into each of the Petri dishes, three inoculi per fungal strain were placed on the media (compare also Fig 1). Then, the dishes were sealed with plastic methane series picture and incubated at room temperature in the nighttime. The Petri dishes were visually inspected every few days.
Degradation of polyurethane (PU) in Petri dishes (diameter nine cm) by fungal inoculi at room temperature.
(A) Deposition of PU (halo) subsequently 6 days of growth past the fungus Cladosporium cladosporioides (WSL No. 156.01). (B) Degradation of PU (halo) subsequently half dozen days of growth by the fungus Leptosphaeria sp. (WSL No. 165.01). (C) Degradation of PU (halo) after six days of growth by the fungus Xepiculopsis graminea (WSL No. 155.01). (D) Degradation of PU (halo) afterwards 6 days of growth by the fungus Penicillium griseofulvum (WSL No. 159.01). (E) Degradation of PU (halo) afterwards six days of growth by the fungus Pestalotiopsis microspora (WSL No. 147.01). (F) Deposition of PU (halo) afterwards 6 days of growth by the fungus Marasmius oreades (WSL No. 105.01). (One thousand) Deposition of PU (halo) after fourteen days of growth by the fungus Agaricus bisporus (WSL No. 99.01). (H) No degradation of PU after xiv days of growth by the white-rot fungus Pleurotus eryngii (WSL No. 130.01).
Optical evaluation of the degradation
The media in Petri dishes containing PE or PU were both milky and not transparent. The PE polymers, however, floated on the top of the medium during agar solidification, whereas PU polymers remained homogeneously distributed within the medium later on agar solidification. According to Russell et al. [16] it was expected that fungi capable of degrading the plastic polymers would display a zone of clearance ('halo') around the growing cultures equally a result of enzymatic plastic degradation past diffusing enzymes excreted by the fungal hyphae, or in the case of PE, abound on the plastic granules [21]. The media with the TA, however, was expected to change the colour from low-cal brown to night brownish as a consequence of an enzymatic oxidative reaction of the TA by diffusing enzymes excreted by the fungal hyphae [23].
Fungus species from the fungal collection for degradation assays
Xx-ane fungal species of the WSL (Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snowfall and Landscape Inquiry) fungal collection belonging to different ecological guilds [17] were selected and tested for its PE, PU, and TA degradation ability, e.one thousand. common saprotrophs (e.m. Agaricus bisporus), wood saprotrophs ('white rots': e.g. Phanerochaete sanguinea, 'brown rots': e.yard. Fomitopsis pinicola), tree pathogens (due east.g. Heterobasidion parviporum), and ectomycorrhizal fungi (eastward.g. Suillus granulatus). The stardom of wood-decomposing fungi between 'white rot' and 'brown rot' fungi followed Breitenbach and Kränzlin [24] and Gramss et al. [23], with 'white rot' fungi being able to dethrone lignin, but the 'brown rot' fungi non.
In social club to have a control strain for the degradation of PU, Pestalotiopsis microspora was purchased from the Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute (CBS No. 364.54; CBS-KNAW, Utrecht, Kingdom of the netherlands). P. microspora is able to degrade PU [16].
Results
Fungal strains isolated from plastic debris
Fungal strains commonly grew within a few days later on dispersing the h2o from the Falcon tubes on the Petri dishes. In full, more than than one hundred fungal strains were isolated. According to their external advent, the fungal strains were grouped into morphological groups. From these groups, one or two fungal strains per group were selected, in total 24 fungal strains, and a part of the nuclear minor subunit rDNA was sequenced. Subsequently blasting the sequences with the NCBI database, the names of the closest species lucifer were listed. In several cases, identical names appeared. The final listing of organisms isolated and sequenced from plastic debris contained twelve unlike fungal species belonging to the Ascomycota and i species to the Oomycota (Pythium) (Table 2). The fungal names were checked and approved using the 'Alphabetize Fungorum' (http://www.indexfungorum.org). A skilful identification of fungal names is given when the nucleotide identity was equal or in a higher place 97% [25]. If the identity was below 97%, then the names take to be taken with caution, and they might not exist right (Table 2).
Table 2
List of fungi isolated from plastic droppings and their power to dethrone polyethylene (PE) and/or polyurethane (PU), respectively (+ aye;—no).
The fungi were sequenced with the primer pairs ITS1/ITS4 or ITS3/ITS4. Living cultures are deposited at the WSL fungus drove. WSL No.: Number of the culture in the WSL fungus drove, Length: Length of the sequenced fragment (bp = base of operations pairs), (%) with the closest friction match of the NCBI database having a genus name.
| Species identity | Fungus species | WSL No. | Primer | Length (bp) | Identity (%) | Closest NCBI | PE | PU |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Loftier | Arthrinium arundinis | 167.01 | ITS3/4 | 301 | 99 | {"blazon":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KJ188680.one","term_id":"618842775","term_text":"KJ188680.ane"}}KJ188680.ane | - | - |
| High | Botryotinia fuckeliana a | 168.01 | ITS3/iv | 300 | 99 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KF533003.i","term_id":"540070787","term_text":"KF533003.1"}}KF533003.1 | - | - |
| High | Cladosporium cladosporioides b | 156.01 | ITS1/four | 522 | 99 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KU508795.1","term_id":"1003010328","term_text":"KU508795.1"}}KU508795.1 | - | + |
| High | Leptosphaeria sp.c | 165.01 | ITS1/4 | 495 | 99 | {"blazon":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KP747710.1","term_id":"924918243","term_text":"KP747710.1"}}KP747710.1 | - | + |
| High | Penicillium griseofulvum | 159.01 | ITS3/iv | 314 | 99 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KJ467353.1","term_id":"619855900","term_text":"KJ467353.ane"}}KJ467353.one | - | + |
| High | Phialemoniopsis curvata d | 166.01 | ITS3/4 | 306 | 98 | NR132067.1 | - | - |
| High | Phoma sp. | 163.01 | ITS3/4 | 306 | 99 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"DQ344033.ane","term_id":"85376951","term_text":"DQ344033.i"}}DQ344033.i | - | - |
| High | Pythium phragmitis | 162.01 | ITS3/4 | 584 | 98 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"HQ643746.1","term_id":"323302009","term_text":"HQ643746.1"}}HQ643746.one | - | - |
| Loftier | Stagonospora neglecta | 169.01 | ITS3/4 | 303 | 99 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"AJ496630.1","term_id":"27529040","term_text":"AJ496630.i"}}AJ496630.one | - | - |
| Loftier | Xepiculopsis graminea e | 155.01 | ITS1/iv | 546 | 97 | {"blazon":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"HQ608010.i","term_id":"312434488","term_text":"HQ608010.one"}}HQ608010.1 | - | + |
| Low | Exophiala bonariae | 160.01 | ITS3/four | 347 | 96 | {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KP791795.1","term_id":"910269885","term_text":"KP791795.1"}}KP791795.1 | - | - |
| Low | Pseudorobillarda texana | 164.01 | ITS3/4 | 326 | 84 | {"blazon":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"FJ825372.1","term_id":"227460830","term_text":"FJ825372.1"}}FJ825372.1 | - | - |
| Low | Setophoma vernoniae | 158.01 | ITS3/4 | 309 | 88 | {"blazon":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"KJ869141.1","term_id":"663232115","term_text":"KJ869141.1"}}KJ869141.1 | - | - |
Ability of the fungal strains from plastic debris to degrade PE and PU
In total, twelve fungus species and one species of Oomycota were tested to dethrone PE or PU (Table ii). After at least three weeks of growth, neither signs of 'halos' were visible around the inoculi nor growth of the inoculi was recorded in the PE degradation assay. I contrast, 'halos' were visible in the PU degradation assay after at least three weeks of growth effectually the inoculi of four fungal species Cladosporium cladosporioides, Xepiculopsis graminea, Penicillium griseofulvum, and Leptosphaeria sp. (Table 2, Fig 1). The most efficient fungi for PU deposition was C. cladosporioides with an guess growth of the halo of 4 mm/d (Fig ane). To ensure the species names, some of these taxa were sequenced once more with the primer pairs ITS1 and ITS4 to obtain longer sequences, which then were deposited at the NCBI database under the accession numbers {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"MF327241","term_id":"1206504701","term_text":"MF327241"}}MF327241—{"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"MF327243","term_id":"1206504703","term_text":"MF327243"}}MF327243 (run into as well Table 2).
Power of fungal strains from diverse fungal guilds to dethrone PU and TA
Overall, none of the tested fungi was able to dethrone PE (information not shown). All the same, three fungal species were able to dethrone PU: Agaricus bisporus, Marasmius oreades, and Pestalotiopsis microspora (Table 3). Surprisingly, none of the highly specialised lignin-decomposing fungi such equally the saprotrophic white-rot fungi or the found pathogens were able to degrade PU. Similarly, the ectomycorrhizal fungi likewise as the saprotrophic brown-rot fungi were not able to degrade PU. From the mutual saprotrophs, who all were able to degrade TA, merely the two species A. bisporus and Thou. oreades were able to degrade additionally PU (Table iii).
Table 3
Selected fungi of the WSL (Swiss Federal Establish for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research) culture collection isolated from plastic debris or from various other sources and their ability to degrade polyurethane (PU) and/or tannic acid (TA), respectively (+ yes;—no).
Social club: Ecological groups according to Nguyen et al. [17] and Gramss et al. [23]. Forest decomposers: BR: Brown rot fungi, WR: White rot fungi, WSL No.: Number of the culture in the WSL fungus collection.
| Origin of isolation | Phylum | Guild | Fungus species | WSL No. | PU | TA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plastic droppings | Ascomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Cladosporium cladosporioides | 156.01 | + | - |
| Plastic debris | Ascomycota | Litter saprotroph | Xepiculopsis graminea | 155.01 | + | + |
| Plastic debris | Ascomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Penicillium griseofulvum | 159.01 | + | - |
| Plastic debris | Ascomycota | Found pathogen | Leptosphaeria sp. | 165.01 | + | - |
| Plastic debris | Ascomycota | Plant pathogen | Arthrinium arundinis | 167.01 | - | - |
| Plastic droppings | Ascomycota | Plant pathogen | Botryotinia fuckeliana | 168.01 | - | - |
| Plastic debris | Ascomycota | Endophyte | Stagonospora neglecta | 169.01 | - | + |
| Plant substrate | Ascomycota | Endophyte | Pestalotiopsis microspora a | 147.01 | + | - |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Agaricus bisporus | 99.01 | + | + |
| Fruiting trunk | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Marasmius oreades | 105.01 | + | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Agrocybe praecox | 125.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Clitocybe nebularis | 103.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Coprinus comatus | 149.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting torso | Basidiomycota | Litter-saprotroph | Phallus impudicus | 128.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-WR | Hypholoma fasciculare | 153.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting torso | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-WR | Armillaria cepistipes | 129.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting torso | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-WR | Phanerochaete sanguinea | 140.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-WR | Pleurotus eryngii | 130.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting torso | Basidiomycota | Woods-saprotroph-WR | Pleurotus ostreatus | 134.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-WR | Stereum hirsutum | 136.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Plant pathogen-WR | Armillaria ostoyae | 135.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting trunk | Basidiomycota | Constitute pathogen-WR | Climacocystis borealis | 132.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Found pathogen-WR | Heterobasidion parviporum | 131.01 | - | + |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Forest-saprotroph-BR | Fomitopsis pinicola | 142.03 | - | - |
| Fruiting trunk | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-BR | Gloeophyllum sepiarium | eighty.01 | - | - |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Wood-saprotroph-BR | Postia tephroleuca | 141.01 | - | - |
| Fruiting torso | Basidiomycota | Ectomycorrhizal | Hebeloma edurum | viii.01 | - | - |
| Fruiting body | Basidiomycota | Ectomycorrhizal | Suillus granulatus | 144.01 | - | - |
Of the four fungal species isolated from the plastic droppings and able to degrade PU, Xepiculopsis graminea was the but species that was able to degrade TA. The endophytic P. microspora, our PU-degradation reference strain [16], was non able to degrade TA (Tabular array 3).
Likewise the PU-degrading fungi reported in the nowadays report, xv ascomycete fungi are reported to potentially degrade PU (Table 4). The all-time-known fungi are members of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Trichoderma. 2 ascomycete and two basidiomycete fungi from this study are newly reported to be able to dethrone PU.
Table four
List of fungal species able to degrade polyurethane (PU).
| Phylum | Fungus species | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Ascomycota | Alternaria alternata | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Aureobasidium pullulans | [1] |
| Ascomycota | Cladosporium cladosporioides | [58], this study |
| Ascomycota | Colletotrichum gloeosporioides | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Corynespora cassiicola | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Curvularia senegalensis | [1] |
| Ascomycota | Fusarium moniliformae, F. solani | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Geomyces pannorum | [39] |
| Ascomycota | Lasiodiplodia crassispora, L. theobromae | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Leptosphaeria sp. | This report |
| Ascomycota | Nectria gliocladioides | [39] |
| Ascomycota | Penicillium ochrochloron, P. griseofulvum | [39], this written report |
| Ascomycota | Periconia sp. | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Pestalotiopsis microspora | [xvi] |
| Ascomycota | Trichoderma harzianum | [61] |
| Ascomycota | Xepiculopsis graminea | This study |
| Basidiomycota | Agaricus bisporus | This study |
| Basidiomycota | Marasmius oreades | This study |
Discussion
The list of organisms, which accept been isolated from plastic debris, included commonly occurring saprotrophic fungi but also some institute pathogens. Normally occurring saprotrophic fungi were Penicillium griseofulvum and Cladosporium cladosporioides [26,27]. Some fungi are known to live as saprotrophs in soils and sediments such as Xepiculopsis graminea and Phialemoniopsis curvata [28,29]. Some fungi are known to alive in association with grasses or with plants growing in the littoral zones of lakes, e.one thousand. Arthrinium arundinis, Leptosphaeria sp. and Phoma sp. [30,31]. Some fungal species are highly specialised to the common reed (Phragmites australis) such equally the endophytic fungus Stagonospora neglecta [32]. Botryotinia fuckelinana is known as a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species [33]. The fungal species, which only had a low identity (Exophiala bonariae, Pseudorobillarda texana, Setophoma vernoniae), were isolated by others either from rocks or from leaves of exotic plants [28,34]. The only organism not belonging to the fungi was the oomyceteous Pythium phragmitis which is a pathogen for the mutual reed (Phragmites australis) [35].
The four fungal species isolated from plastic debris showed a 'halo' in the PU assay: C. cladosporioides, P. griseofulvum, X. graminea, and Leptosphaeria sp. Cladosporium cladosporioides had been observed already by others to be able to degrade PU. Álvarez-Barragán et al. [36] institute that the 6 all-time PU-degrading strains using an Impranil assay belonged to the C. cladosporioides circuitous, with identities betwixt 99% and 100%. Further Blast assay of the actin and translation elongation factor from these half dozen strains showed the highest matches with the C. pseudocladosporioides, C. tenuissimum, C. asperulatum, and C. montecillanum [36]. Some reports, in dissimilarity to our written report, stated that C. cladosporioides is able to degrade PE as well (e.g. [37,38]). Yet, their results based not on the formation of a 'halo' in a Petri dish later PE degradation, merely on observing erosion of the PE film surface in the vicinity of the fungal hyphae as well as formation of oxidation products in the surface of the polymer pic measured by FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy). Penicillium ochrochloron, a different species than our isolated P. griseofulvum, had been observed already by other authors to accept the capability to degrade PU [39]. These authors practical similarly as described above the PU assay using Impranil for soil fungi which they isolated from soil-buried PU pieces. For Xepiculopsis graminea and Leptosphaeria sp., in contrast, no references were establish in the literature. Thus, this is the first report on the power of these two fungi to degrade PU.
There is evidence from the literature that microorganisms capable of degrading complex C polymers such as lignin can too degrade plastics [xl]. Such degradation potential is based on lignin-degrading enzymes, e.thousand. oxidases, laccases and peroxidases, which are used in various industries and which are too reported to be involved in the deposition of xenobiotic compounds and dyes [41]. Overall, the iii saprotrophic fungi Agaricus bisporus, Marasmius oreades and Xepiculopsis graminea remain the but fungi in our study which were able to degrade PU likewise as TA. At to the lowest degree A. bisporus is known to possess a broad diversity of enzymes including enzymes involved in xylan, cellulose, pectin, and protein degradation, as well as heme-thiolate peroxidases and β-etherases, which are distinctive from other forest-decayers and suggest a wide attack on decaying lignin and related metabolites found in humic acrid-rich environment [42]. The catabolic ability of A. bisporus agrees with the presence of a large set of genes encoding CAZymes [43] acting on jail cell wall polysaccharides including glycoside hydrolases, polysaccharide lyases, and carbohydrate esterases [42]. Carbohydrate esterases are suited in A. bisporus to interruption downwardly the cell wall polysaccharides xylan, chitin, and pectin [44].
Marasmius oreades is known to produce fairy rings in grasslands. Fairy rings are characterised by two or three adjacent concentric zones of aberrant turf. Inside the zone of most intense fungal growth, the grass is ofttimes killed, and this result has been attributed to a lack of moisture and to hydrocyanic acid produced by the fungus [45,46]. The occurrence of fairy rings in natural vegetation has simultaneous contrasting effects of both stimulation and a parasitisation of establish species in adjacent zones, producing concentric regular bands of lush and scorched vegetation [47]. In soils colonized past Thou. oreades, deposition of found roots in the presence of fungal cell-wall degrading enzymes increased the content of dissolved organic carbon [48]. Interestingly, similar every bit M. oreades, members of the Agaricus genus form fairy ring equally well, e.g. A. arvensis [49]. Thus, it can be causeless, that members of both, Agaricus and Marasmius, possess like enzymatic capabilities to interruption downwards complex carbohydrate polymers.
Members of Xepiculopsis are filamentous ascomycete fungi, which grow ubiquitous in soils or are weak plant pathogens, simply they also are capable of growing on walls in houses [50]. Some species produce mycotoxins and are used every bit bio-control agents to control weeds [51,52]. Xepiculopsis graminea was originally described as Myrothecium gramineum on decaying grasses [53]. But other than that, non much is known from this species.
Besides the PU-degrading fungi reported in the present study, a series of other ascomycete fungi are reported to degrade PU (Table 4). The all-time-known fungi are members of the genera Aspergillus and Trichoderma, all of which are known to be used in biotechnological processes [54]. Members of Aspergillus are used to produce the enzymes amylases, glucoamylases, glucose oxidase, invertase, pectinase, and proteinases, whereas members of Trichoderma are used to produce cellulase [55].
Although we accept in the nowadays study not investigated ourselves the enzymes produced past the PU-degrading fungi, at that place are several studies which report that enzymes involved in PU degradation are most likely esterases and hydrolases. Alvarez-Barragan et al. [36] postulated that Cladosporium cladosporioides complex were the best PU degraders among the fungi tested, whereas Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium chrysogenum were the least degrading strains. Besides Impranil, the fungal isolates of Cladosporium spp. degraded PU foam as well. FTIR spectroscopy and GC-MS analysis showed that ester and urethane groups were attacked through the activity of fungal enzymes. During PU degradation, considerable activities of esterases were detected, only only low urease and no protease activities [36]. Loredo-Treviño et al. [56], isolating 32 fungal strains from sand samples contaminated with PU, reported 22 strains existence able to abound using PU as food source. Amid the genera found were Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Penicillium, and Fusarium. Almost all of the PU-degrading fungi showed urease activity, whereas esterase, protease, and laccase activities were nowadays simply in a lower amount of the fungi. For the PU-degrader species Pestalotiopsis microspora, Russell et al. [xvi] suggested a serine hydrolase-like enzyme existence responsible for PU deposition.
Conclusions
The majority of fungi isolated from plastic droppings in the shoreline of a lake in Switzerland do not seem to be able to dethrone the plastic they grew on. None of the fungi was able to degrade PE, whereas at least a few fungi isolated had the ability to degrade PU. 3 of these fungi were saprotrophs, and ane was a plant pathogen. Thus, nosotros could only partially ostend the previously formulated hypothesis that at to the lowest degree some of the fungus can dethrone plastic, but just PU and non particularly PE. The search for boosted fungal species isolated from other substrates than from plastics or from fruiting bodies revealed that they were in general besides unable to dethrone PE. Only two saprotrophic fungi, Agaricus bisporus and Marasmius oreades, were able to degrade PU.
It seems that the biological degradation of PE still remains a challenge. Although there have recently been several review articles that fungi can dethrone PE (e.one thousand. [1,40,57–62]), these reports are no more than vague hints. Otherwise, the plastic waste would non be transported vertically beyond oceans and landscapes, mechanically fragmented, and eventually accumulated as micro- or nanoplastic in the sediments and surround if fungi and other microorganisms were efficient in deposition. Although the majority of plastic debris that has entered the bounding main since 1950 has settled to depths beneath the ocean surface layer, it is estimated that 0.iii million tons of plastic are floating on the sea surface, of which an estimated 14% is microplastic (0.335–5 mm) and ii.5% is nanoplastic (<0.335 mm) [63]. These small plastic fragments in particular are problematic, because they enter into the food webs and accumulate potentially in animals [64–68].
Knowing the ecological guild would facilitate the search for potential fungi which are able to degrade plastics. Not long agone a Japanese grouping found in a like style a bacterium that degrades poly(ethylene terephthalate) PET [69]. If such microorganisms could be found, their spores or their plastic degrading enzymes could be incorporated into the plastic material during manufacturing and, when the plastic waste material would come into contact with lake- or sea-water, the fungi would starting time to grow and to degrade the plastic.
Acknowledgments
This study was a role of the 'Matura' work of Moira Fischer. Nosotros thank Katja Braun from the CSC JÄKLECHEMIE GmbH & Co. KG, Geschäftsbereich Farb- und Lackrohstoff, Nürnberg, Germany, for providing usa a sample of Impranil®DLN-SD. Nosotros also thank Robin Winiger for the help with the degradation experiments and the pictures. And nosotros further thank Daniel Rigling from the WSL and Thomas Sieber from the Plant of Integrative Biology of the ETH Zürich for giving us fungal strains for previous projects.
Funding Statement
The authors received no specific funding for this work.
Data Availability
All relevant data are within the paper.
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